Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-94) was born in Frankfurt-am-Main Germany on 15 June 1902 to a young Danish Jewish woman, Karla Abrahamsen. His natural father departed before the birth, and his mother subsequently married Dr Theodor Homberger, Erik's paediatrician. Erik changed his surname later in life, seemingly on becoming an American citizen.
A degree of uncertainty about personal identity and direction apparently characterised Erik's childhood and early adult years - not surprisingly given his circumstances - which reflected and perhaps helped inspire his life work. Erikson identified one basic virtue, plus another virtue (described below a 'secondary virtue') for each stage. At times he referred to 'basic virtues' as'basic strengths'. Basic virtues and other strengths crisis including adaptive strength basic virtue & secondary virtue (and related strengths) life stage / relationships / issues

1. Trust v Mistrust
Hope & Drive (faith, inner calm, grounding, basic feeling that everything will be okay - enabling exposure to risk, a trust in life and self and others, inner resolve and strength in the face of uncertainty and risk)
infant / mother / feeding and being comforted, teething, sleeping
2. Autonomy v Shame & Doubt
Willpower & Self-Control (self-determination, self-belief, self-reliance, confidence in self to decide things, having a voice, being one's own person, persistence, self-discipline, independence of thought, responsibility, judgement)
toddler / parents / bodily functions, toilet training, muscular control, walking
3. Initiative v Guilt
Purpose & Direction (sense of purpose, decision-making, working with and leading others, initiating projects and ideas, courage to instigate, ability to define personal direction and aims and goals, able to take initiative and appropriate risks)
preschool / family / exploration and discovery, adventure and play
4. Industry v Inferiority
Competence & Method (making things, producing results, applying skills and processes productively, feeling valued and capable of contributing, ability to apply method and process in pursuit of ideas or objectives, confidence to seek and respond to challenge and learning, active busy productive outlook)
schoolchild / school, teachers, friends, neighbourhood / achievement and accomplishment
5. Identity v Role Confusion
Fidelity & Devotion (self-confidence and self-esteem necessary to freely associate with people and ideas based on merit, loyalty, social and interpersonal integrity, discretion, personal standards and dignity, pride and personal identity, seeing useful personal role(s) and purpose(s) in life)
adolescent / peers, groups, influences / resolving identity and direction, becoming a grown-up
6. Intimacy v Isolation
Love & Affiliation (capacity to give and receive love - emotionally and physically, connectivity with others, socially and inter-personally comfortable, ability to form honest reciprocating relationships and friendships, capacity to bond and commit with others for mutual satisfaction - for work and personal life, reciprocity - give and take - towards good)
young adult / lovers, friends, work connections / intimate relationships, work and social life
7. Generativity v Stagnation
Care & Production (giving unconditionally in support of children and/or for others, community, society and the wider world where possible and applicable, altruism, contributing for the greater good, making a positive difference, building a good legacy, helping others through their own crisis stages
mid-adult / children, community / 'giving back', helping, contributing
8. Integrity v Despair
Wisdom & Renunciation (calmness, tolerance, appropriate emotional detachment - non-projection, no regrets, peace of mind, non-judgemental, spiritual or universal reconciliation, acceptance of inevitably departing)
late adult / society, the world, life / meaning and purpose, life achievements, acceptance.

Carl Rogers adalah satu – satunya pakar yang amat mementingkan manusia sebagai manusia, dan menyangkal keras pandangan yang melihat manusia sebagai objek yang boleh dimanipulasi sama ada dari dalam atau luar. Beliau juga mementingkan perkembangan manusia yang positif dan melihat semua manusia sebagai entiti – entiti yang baik dan mulia. Semua tingkah laku mereka didorong oleh pencapaian kesempurnaan kendiri.
Ada beberapa suasana atau keadaan yang dapat membantu manusia untuk berkembang secara positif. Amir Awang (1987) mencatatkan tiga suasana tersebut, iaitu :
1. Kejujuran, keikhlasan dan kebenaran.
2. Penerimaan tanpa syarat dan perasaan ambil berat.
3. Kefahaman yang mendalam.
Jikalau semua faktor ini ada pada setiap manusia, maka perkembangan diri yang positif ke arah kesempurnaan kendiri akan berjalan dengan lebih lancar.
Kendiri pula adalah satu organisasi atau aturan persepsi atau gestalt yang konsisten, termasuklah sebahagian yang ada dalam ruang fenomenal serta hubungan dengan entiti lain seseorang itu yang dilihatnya sebagai “aku”, “saya” atau “diri”. Pada masa yang sama, Rogers menyatakan dalam setiap individu wujud satu konsep yang digelar sebagai diri unggul, iaitu bentuk dan konsep – kendiri yang amat diingini oleh individu berkenaan. Diri unggul mempunyai kompenan- kompenan seperti persepsi dan makna yang releven pada individu tersebut serta sesuatu yang amat bernilai pada dirinya.

Konsep – kendiri yang disarankan oleh Rogers adalah definisi diri yang individu sendiri berikan kepada diri individu secara sedar apabila menggunakan perkataan “saya” atau “aku”. Ada beberapa fakta yang menarik berkenaan dengan konsep - kendiri Rogers, antaranya ialah :
1. Pandangan Rogers terhadap kendiri sama seperti kefahaman umum psikologi terhadap persepsi.
2. Kendiri mengandungi sifat configurational, gabungan – mewakili satu yang terurus dan konsisten secara keseluruhan.
3. Kendiri tidak homunculus. Kendiri tidak berbuat apa – apa. Seseorang individu tidak mempunyai satu kendiri yang mengawasi tingkah lakunya, sebaliknya dia mempunyai satu gabungan pengalaman yang digambarkan sebagai kendiri.
4. Gabungan pengalaman dan persepsi, dikenali sebagai kendiri, pola timbul dalam kesedaran. Jika definisi kendiri terlibat dengan ukuran yang tidak sedar, sukar dioperationaliskan untuk membut kajian.